Packaging and labeling

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"Packaging" redirects here. For other uses, see Packaging (disambiguation).

Tablets in a blister pack, which was itself packaged in a folding carton made of paperboard.

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells.^[1] In many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use.
Package labelling (en-GB) or labeling (en-US) is any written, electronic, or graphic communications on the packaging or on a separate but associated label.

History

Amphorae on display in Bodrum Castle, Turkey

The first packages used the natural materials available at the time: Baskets of reeds, wineskins (Bota bags), wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed: for example, early glass and bronze vessels. The study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology.
Iron and tin plated steel were used to make cans in the early 19th century. Paperboard cartons and corrugated fiberboard boxes were first introduced in the late 19th century.
Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and panels on cartons, increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and functionality.^[2]
In-plant recycling has long been common for production of packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.
As of 2003^[update], the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of the gross national product in developed countries. About half of this market was related to food packaging.^[3]

[edit] The purposes of packaging and package labels

Diced pork in tray and film overwrap. Label indicates net weight, composition, preparation, etc. The Union Flag, British Farm Standard tractor logo, and British Meat Quality Standard logo are also present.

Packaging and package labeling have several objectives^[4]

• Physical protection - The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from, among other things, mechanical shock, vibration, electrostatic discharge, compression, temperature^[5], etc.
• Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres ^[6] or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile^[7] and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.
• Containment or agglomeration - Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than 1000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
• Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and chemical products, some types of information are required by governments. Some packages and labels also are used for track and trace purposes.
• Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package graphic design and physical design have been important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
• Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident^[8] features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance^[9] tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention.
• Convenience - Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing, and reuse.
• Portion control - Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It is also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.

• Packaging types

  

  

  Various household packaging types for foods
  Packaging may be looked at as being of several different types. For example a transport package or distribution package can be the shipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which is directed toward a consumer or household.
  Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical device packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food packaging, military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.
  
  

  

  Aluminium can with a pull tab
  It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "primary", "secondary", etc.
  
• Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents.
• Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, perhaps used to group primary packages together.
• Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly into containers.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution packs.

Symbols used on packages and labels

A bar code encoding the word "Wikipedia" in Code 128

Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications, trademarks, proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer use and safety. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include the recycling symbol, the resin identification code and the "Green Dot".
Bar codes , Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated information management in logistics and retailing. Country of Origin Labeling is often used.

Shipping container labeling

"Print & Apply" corner wrap UCC (GS1-128) label application to a pallet load

Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes, bar codes, and electronic data interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has an essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.
Elements of these core technologies include UPC and EAN item identification codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designated GS1-128) bar code symbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.
Small parcel carriers often have their own formats. For example, United Parcel Service has a MaxiCode 2-D code for parcel tracking.
RFID labels for shipping containers are also increasing in usage. A Wal-Mart division, Sam's Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers for compliance.^[10]
Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special information and symbols (labels, plackards, etc.) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. Two examples are below:

With transport packages, standardised symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some common ones are shown below while others are listed in ASTM D5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods" and ISO 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods".

Fragile	Do not use hand hooks	This way up	Keep away from sunlight
Keep away from water	Centre of gravity	Clamp as indicated	Do not clamp as indicated

Package development considerations

Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product development process. Alternatively, development of a package (or component) can be a separate process, but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design, marketing, shelf life, quality assurance, logistics, legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The design criteria, performance (specified by package testing), completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon.

Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logistics system. Packages designed for controlled shipments of uniform pallet loads may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers.

An example of how package design is affected by other factors is the relationship to logistics. When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sortation, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletized unit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to those specific needs: vertical stacking, perhaps for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited for another.
With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the package. For example with packaging foods, any package components that may contact the food are food contact materials.^[11] Toxicologists and food scientists need to verify that the packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations. Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf life with normal usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be validated to comply with regulations and have the well being of the consumer in mind.
Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example, regulations for an over-the-counter drug might require the package to be tamper-evident and child resistant^[12]: These intentionally make the package difficult to open.^[13] The intended consumer, however, might be handicapped or elderly and be unable to readily open the package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.
Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external packaging engineering: independent contractors, consultants, vendor evaluations, independent laboratories, contract packagers, total outsourcing, etc. Some sort of formal Project planning and Project management methodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development programs. An effective quality management system and Verification and Validation protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.

Environmental considerations

Main article: sustainable packaging

Package development involves considerations for sustainability, environmental responsibility, and applicable environmental and recycling regulations. It may involve a life cycle assessment^[14][15] which considers the material and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, the logistics system^[16], waste management, etc. It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.
The traditional “three R’s” of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a waste hierarchy which may be considered in product and package development.

The waste hierarchy

• Prevention – Waste prevention is a primary goal. Packaging should be used only where needed. Proper packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important part in preventing loss or damage to the packaged-product (contents). Usually, the energy content and material usage of the product being packaged are much greater than that of the package. A vital function of the package is to protect the product for its intended use: if the product is damaged or degraded, its entire energy and material content may be lost.^[17][18]
• Minimization – (also "source reduction") The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of contents) can be measured and used as one of the criteria to minimize during the package design process. Usually “reduced” packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging.^[19]
• Reuse – The reuse of a package or component for other purposes is encouraged. Returnable packaging has long been useful (and economically viable) for closed loop logistics systems. Inspection, cleaning, repair and recouperage are often needed. Some manufacturers re-use the packaging of the incoming parts for a product, either as packaging for the outgoing product^[20] or as part of the product itself.^[21]
• Recycling – Recycling is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into new products. Emphasis is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a package: steel, aluminum, papers, plastics, etc. Small components can be chosen which are not difficult to separate and do not contaminate recycling operations.
• Energy recovery – Waste-to-energy and Refuse-derived fuel in approved facilities are able to make use of the heat available from the packaging components.
• Disposal – Incineration, and placement in a sanitary landfill are needed for some materials. Certain states within the US regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the potential to contaminate emissions and ash from incineration and leachate from landfill.^[22] Packages should not be littered.

Development of sustainable packaging is an area of considerable interest by standards organizations, government, consumers, packagers, and retailers.

Packaging machines

Beer bottling lines

A choice of packaging machinery includes: technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety, maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, ergonomics, return on investment, etc.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:

• Accumulating and Collating Machines
• Blister packs, skin packs and Vacuum Packaging Machines
• Bottle caps equipment, Over-Capping, Lidding, Closing, Seaming and Sealing Machines
• Box, Case and Tray Forming, Packing, Unpacking, Closing and Sealing Machines
• Cartoning machines
• Cleaning, Sterilizing, Cooling and Drying Machines
• Coding, Printing, Marking, Stamping, and Imprinting Machines
• Converting Machines
• Conveyor belts, Accumulating and Related Machines
• Feeding, Orienting, Placing and Related Machines
• Filling Machines: Handling dry, powered, solid, liquid, gas, or viscous products
• Inspecting, Detecting and Check weigher Machines
• Label dispenser
• Orienting, Unscrambling Machines
• Package Filling and Closing Machines
• Palletizing, Depalletizing, Unit load assembly
• Product Identification: labeling, marking, etc.
• Wrapping machines: Shrink wrap, Banding
• Form, Fill and Seal Machines
• Other speciality machinery: slitters, perforating, laser cutters, parts attachment, etc.
• Process Machinery (Product Preparation): Chopper, Crusher, Cutter, Molder, Peeler, etc.
• Process Machinery (Special Product): Coating, Enrobing, Seasoning
• Process Machinery (Product Cooking, Heating, and Cooling): Aseptic

Bakery goods shrinkwrapped by shrink film, heat sealer and heat tunnel on roller conveyer	High speed conveyor with bar code scanner for sorting transport packages	Label printer applicator applying a label to adjacent panels of a corrugated box.	Robotics used to palletize bread
Equipment used for making molded pulp components and molding packaging from straw[23]	A semi-automatic Rotary Arm Stretch Wrapper	Equipment for thermoforming packages at NASA

Packaging Schools and Degree Programs

• Clemson University (BS, MS)

External Link to Clemson's Packaging Program

External Link to The Sonoco Institute of Packaging Design and Graphics

• Michigan State University (BS, MS, PhD)

External Link to Michigan State's Packaging Program

• Rochester Institute of Technology (BS)
• The Packaging School (online certificate)
• University of Wisconsin-Stout (BS, MS)

•  

List of misleadingly-named foods

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The names of various foods can sometimes be ambiguous as the name contains nothing concerning its origins or the food's ingredients. Some dishes are named after an important place, even if it has no connection to the actual dish, or after an important person. Some dishes are named as the result of misunderstandings and still others have unknown reasons for their names.

General

Nasi goreng pattaya

• Nasi goreng pattaya —- A Malaysian dish, not Phatthaya's local dish.

• Ants Climbing a Tree —- A Chinese dish that consists of noodles with pork on it, seeming as if the ants are climbing onto a tree.

• Bika Ambon —- An Indonesian snack. Although "Ambon" is a place in Indonesia, the food never really came from Ambon. It is originated from Medan, another city in Indonesia. The name "ambon" cam from "Pisang Ambon", a type of banana used in the making process.

• Bombay Duck —- A dish consisting of dried Bummalo fish, but containing nothing in connection with a duck. The name dates back to the period where British armies were stationed in Bombay, India, and they could not stand the smell of the dried fish as it was identical to the smell of a mail container in London. In Hindi, the term "mail" is "dak"; causing the dish to be called "Bombay Dak", which later became "Bombay Duck".

• Chicken Maryland —- A fried chicken in butter served with fried banana in butter and sliced pineapples. Sometimes the chicken is wrapped with ham. The dish is not from Maryland, and might have been introduced to Europe from Southern Asia by English people.

• Gunpowder Tea —- Chinese tea found in Guangdong.

• Hawaiian Pizza —- Never came from Hawaii. The name is from the Hawaiian pineapples which are put on the dish.

• Lion's head —- A Chinese dish made from pork.

• Norwegian Omelette —- Not a Norwegian dish, but rather a French dessert. The name results from the dish's use of egg whites and it's cold ice cream center.

• Patat Kapsalon —- A Dutch dish of French fries topped with shoarma or Doner kebab meat, lettuce, cheese, hot sauce, and garlic sauce, which is briefly baked in an oven before serving. "Kapsalon" means "hair salon" and comes from the inventor of the dish, a Rotterdam salon owner.

• Singapore Mai Fun —- Noodles fried in curry which can be found in various places within Asia and America, but can never be found in Singapore.

• Bistek a caballo —- Meaning 'horse-style' steak, is made of beef, not horsemeat. Cuisine of Colombia.

• Welsh Rabbit -- An open-faced sandwich of melted cheese sauce on wheat bread. Contains no rabbit meat.

• Thai Food

• Khao Phat Amerikan (American Fried Rice) —- Not an American dish. Furthermore, American people do not usually have rice as a main dish.

• Kai Sam Yang (Three-Kind Chicken) —- Made of peanuts, dried salted shrimps and lemon grasses, but not any chicken.

• Suea Rong Hai (Crying Tiger) —- Made from beef, not any tiger meat.

• Lot Chong Singkhapo (Singapore Rice Noodle) —- A Thai dessert consisting of noodles made of rice eaten with coconut cream and ice. It is not from Singapore and has nothing to do with the country. The name of the dish comes from the Singapore Theatre in Bangkok where the dessert was first made.

• American Food

  

  

  Buffalo Wings
• Boston Cream Pie — A cake, not a pie.

• Buffalo Wings — Made of chicken wings, not buffalo meat. The name is from Buffalo, New York where the dish was first cooked.

• Caesar Salad — Does not pertain to Julius Caesar, as is commonly believed. The name was in commemoration of Cesar Cardini, the menu originator.

• Chinese Chicken Salad — Not from China, instead it is an American dish.

• City Chicken — Does not consist of cities or chicken, but cubes of fried meat.

• Dirt cake — Made with crumbled cookies supposedly resembling dirt.

• French fried potatoes — The origin of which is suggested to be Belgium, not France. They are called French fries because of the way the potatoes are sliced, which is known as "frenched"

• French Dressing — A dressing which is unknown to French people.

• German Chocolate Cake — Not from Germany, it is instead an American dessert. The name is derived from Englishman named Sam German, who created the chocolate originally used in the cake.

• Hamburger — Does not contain any ham. The name is from Hamburg City in Germany where it was first produced.

• Hot Dog — Contains no dog meat, but Barry Popik established that the term "hot dog" was current at Yale in the fall of 1894, when "dog wagons" sold hot dogs at the dorms.

• (Misssissippi) Mud pie — Not the children's pretend food which is literally made from mud.

• Rocky Mountain Oysters — Not a seafood, but rather a local culinary name for bull testicles.

Nutrition facts label

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A sample nutrition facts label with instructions from the US FDA. [1]

The nutrition facts label (also known as the nutrition information panel, and various other slight variations) is a label required on most packaged food in many countries.
Marketing and fashion interests may include other claims: "Source of Fibre", "Soluble Fiber", "Omega3", "Excellent Source of Calcium", "No preservatives", "No artificial ... ", and so on—slight varying depending on the country.

Regional manifestations

Australia and New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand use a nutritional information panel of the following format:

NUTRITION INFORMATION

Servings per package: x
Serving size: y g (or mL etc.)
	Quantity per Serving	Quantity per 100 g (or 100 mL etc.)
Energy	n1 kJ (n′1 Cal)	m1 kJ (m′1 Cal)
Protein	n2 g	n2 g
Fat, total	n3 g	n3 g
- saturated	n4 g	n4 g
Carbohydrate	n5 g	n5 g
- sugars	n6 g	n6 g
Sodium	n7 mg	n7 mg

Other items are included as appropriate, and the units may be varied as appropriate.^[1]

[edit] Canada

In Canada, a standardized "Nutrition Facts" label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12, 2005. (Smaller businesses were given until December 12, 2007 to make the information available.)[2].
Canadian regulation tightly controls the manner in which the nutrition fact table (NFT) data is laid out. There is a wide variety of possible formats for use on a given food package. A selection hierarchy is used to select among the many formats (28 main formats, and 2-7 subformats for each). This results in standard (vertical) formats being considered for use before horizontal and linear formats. The selection hierarchy also allows the NFT to occupy no more than 15% of the physical package's available display area (ADS), but never to be smaller than a format that would be <=15% of ADS. In practice, determining the ADS of a package, and selecting the appropriate NFT format, can be a detailed calculation.

[edit] European Union

It is regulated by the Commission Directive 2008/100/EC of 28 October 2008 amending Council Directive 90/496/EEC on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions.^[2]
In the European Union, the information (usually in panel format) is most often labeled "Nutrition Information" (or equivalent in other EU languages). The panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity — usually 100 g (3.5 oz) or 100 ml (3.5 imp fl oz; 3.4 US fl oz) of the product — and often also for a defined "serving". First will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules.
Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements: usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The "fat" figure is likely to be further broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat, while the "carbohydrate" figure is likely to give a subtotal for sugars.
For most foods, there are no specific legal definitions of terms such as "low fat" or "high fibre", although spreadable fats (e.g. butter and margarine) do have statutory requirements for the quantity of fat they contain. However, terms such as "reduced calorie" may not be used unless they can be shown to be considerably lower in calories than the "usual" version of the product.
Provided the full nutrition information is shown on the packet, additional nutritional information and formats (e.g. a traffic light rating system) may be included and this falls outside the scope of regulation.
The United Kingdom regulations are given in Schedules 6 and 7 of the Food Labelling Regulations 1996.^[3]

India

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare had, on September 19, 2008, notified the Prevention of Food Adulteration (5th Amendment) Rules, 2008, mandating packaged food manufacturers to declare on their product labels nutritional information and a mark from the I.S.O, F.P.O and/or Agmark (Companies that are responsible for checking food products) to enable consumers make informed choices while purchasing.^[4] Prior to this amendment, disclosure of nutritional information was largely voluntary though many large manufacturers tend to adopt the international practice.^[5]

Mexico

Food products sold in Mexico use the NOM-051-SCFI-1994 "Información nutrimental" product labelling standard (which is very similar to "Nutrition Facts" in the U.S.). The Official Mexican Standard, or NOM (Norma Oficial Mexicana), was developed by the Mexican Secretary of Commerce and Industrial Promotion (Secretaría de Comercio y Fomento Industrial, or SCFI), now a part of the Secretary of the Economy (SECOFI). It entered into effect on January 24, 1996,^[6] and defines "General specifications for labelling foods and pre-bottled non-alcoholic beverages".^[7]

United States

In the U.S., the nutritional facts label lists the percentage supplied required in one day of human nutrients based on the average 2000 calorie a day diet. With certain exceptions, such as foods meant for babies, the following Daily Values are used.^[8] These are called Reference Daily Intake values and were originally based on the highest 1968 Recommended Dietary Allowances for each nutrient in order to assure that the needs of all age and sex combinations were met.^[9] Notice that these are older than the current Recommended Dietary Allowances of the Dietary Reference Intake. For Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese, the current maximum RDA's (over age and sex) are up to 50% higher than the Daily Values used in labeling, whereas for other nutrients the estimated maximal needs have gone down. As of October 2010, the only micronutrients which are required to be included on all labels are vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.^[10] To determine the nutrient levels in the foods, companies may develop or use databases, and these may be submitted voluntarily to the FDA for review.^[11]

Nutrient	Daily Value for label	highest RDA of DRI
Vitamin A	5000 IU	3000 IU
Vitamin C	60 mg	90 mg
Calcium	1000 mg	1300 mg
Iron	18 mg	18 mg
Vitamin D	400 IU	600 IU
Vitamin E	30 IU	15 mg (33 IU of synthetic)
Vitamin K	80 μg	120 μg
Thiamin	1.5 mg	1.2 mg
Riboflavin	1.7 mg	1.3 mg
Niacin	20 mg	16 mg
Vitamin B6	2 mg	1.7 mg
Folate	400 μg	400 μg
Vitamin B12	6 μg	2.4 μg
Biotin	300 μg	30 μg
Pantothenic acid	10 mg	5 mg
Phosphorus	1000 mg	1250 mg
Iodine	150 μg	150 μg
Magnesium	400 mg	420 mg
Zinc	15 mg	11 mg
Selenium	70 μg	55 μg
Copper	2 mg	900 μg
Manganese	2 mg	2.3 mg
Chromium	120 μg	35 μg
Molybdenum	75 μg	45 μg
Chloride	3400 mg	2300 mg

In certain cases this label is not yet required by law, so a list of ingredients should be present instead. Ingredients are listed in order from highest to lowest quantity, according to their weight.
The label was mandated for most food products under the provisions of the 1990 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), per the recommendations of the United States Department of Health and Human Services' Food and Drug Administration[3]. It was one of several controversial actions taken during the tenure of FDA Commissioner Dr. David Kessler. The law required food companies to begin using the new food label on packaged foods beginning May 8, 1994. (Meat and poultry products were not covered by NLEA, though the U.S. Department of Agriculture proposed similar regulations for voluntary labeling of raw meat and poultry.^[12]) Foods labeled before that day could use the old label. This appeared on all products in 1995. The old label was titled "Nutrition Information Per Serving" or simply, "Nutrition Information".
The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a break down of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.
Products containing less than 5 g of fat show amounts rounded to the nearest 0.5 g. Amounts less than 0.5 g are rounded to 0 g. For example, if a product contains 0.45 g of trans fat per serving, and the package contains 18 servings, the label would show 0 g of trans fat, even though the product actually contains a total of 8.1 g of trans fat.
Products that claim to be classified as low-fat and high-fiber must achieve uniform definitions between products of similar labels.
The nutrition facts label currently appears on more than 6.5 billion food packages. President Bill Clinton issued an award of design excellence for the nutrition facts label in 1997 to Burkey Belser in Washington, DC.^[13]
The FDA does not require any specific typeface be used in the Nutrition Facts label, mandating only that the label "utilize a single easy-to-read type style",^[14] though its example label uses Helvetica.^[15]
In 2009, a federal appellate court rejected the New York State Restaurant Association’s challenge to the city’s 2007 regulation requiring most major fast-food and chain restaurants to prominently display calorie information on their menus. The rule applies to restaurants that are part of chains with at least 15 establishments doing business nationally.^[16]

 

Food security

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Growth in food production has been greater than population growth. Food per person increased during the 1961-2005 period. The y-axis is percent of 1999-2001 average food production per capita. Data source: World Resources Institute.

Barley is a major animal feed crop.

To comply with Wikipedia's guidelines, the introduction of this article may need to be rewritten. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and read the layout guide to make sure the section will be inclusive of all essential details. (October 2010)

Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered food-secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades.^[1] In 2006, MSNBC reported that globally, the number of people who are overweight has surpassed the number who are undernourished - the world had more than one billion people who were overweight, and an estimated 800 million who were undernourished.^[2] According to a 2004 article from the BBC, China, the world's most populous country, is suffering from an obesity epidemic.^[3] In India, the second-most populous country in the world, 30 million people have been added to the ranks of the hungry since the mid-1990s and 46% of children are underweight.^[4]
Worldwide around 852 million people are chronically hungry due to extreme poverty, while up to 2 billion people lack food security intermittently due to varying degrees of poverty (source: FAO, 2003). Six million children die of hunger every year - 17,000 every day.^[5] As of late 2007, export restrictions and panic buying, US Dollar Depreciation,^[6] increased farming for use in biofuels,^[7] world oil prices at more than $100 a barrel,^[8] global population growth,^[9] climate change,^[10] loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development,^[11][12] and growing consumer demand in China and India^[13] are claimed to have pushed up the price of grain.^[14][15] However, the role of some of these factors is under debate. Some argue the role of biofuel has been overplayed^[16] as grain prices have come down to the levels of 2006. Nonetheless, food riots have recently taken place in many countries across the world.^[17][18][19]
It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain food security in a world beset by a confluence of "peak" phenomena, namely peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain and peak fish. More than half of the planet's population, numbering approximately 3.3 billion people, live in urban areas as of November 2007. Any disruption to farm supplies may precipitate a uniquely urban food crisis in a relatively short time.^[20] The ongoing global credit crisis has affected farm credits, despite a boom in commodity prices.^[21] Food security is a complex topic, standing at the intersection of many disciplines.
A new peer-reviewed journal of Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and Access to Food began publishing in 2009.^[22] In developing countries, often 70% or more of the population lives in rural areas. In that context, agricultural development among smallholder farmers and landless people provides a livelihood for people allowing them the opportunity to stay in their communities. In many areas of the world, land ownership is not available, thus, people who want or need to farm to make a living have little incentive to improve the land.
In the US, there are approximately 2,000,000 farmers, less than 1% of the population. A direct relationship exists between food consumption levels and poverty. Families with the financial resources to escape extreme poverty rarely suffer from chronic hunger; while poor families not only suffer the most from chronic hunger, but are also the segment of the population most at risk during food shortages and famines.
Two commonly used definitions of food security come from the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA):

• Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social^[23] and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.^[24]
• Food security for a household means access by all members at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food security includes at a minimum (1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and (2) an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (that is, without resorting to emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies). (USDA)^[25]

The stages of food insecurity range from food secure situations to full-scale famine. "Famine and hunger are both rooted in food insecurity. Food insecurity can be categorized as either chronic or transitory. Chronic food insecurity translates into a high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger; ensuring food security presupposes elimination of that vulnerability. [Chronic] hunger is not famine. It is similar to undernourishment and is related to poverty, existing mainly in poor countries."^[26]

Stunting and chronic nutritional deficiencies

Children and a nurse attendant at a Nigerian orphanage in the late 1960’s with symptoms of low calorie and protein intake.

Many countries experience perpetual food shortages and distribution problems. These result in chronic and often widespread hunger amongst significant numbers of people. Human populations respond to chronic hunger and malnutrition by decreasing body size, known in medical terms as stunting or stunted growth. This process starts in utero if the mother is malnourished and continues through approximately the third year of life. It leads to higher infant and child mortality, but at rates far lower than during famines. Once stunting has occurred, improved nutritional intake later in life cannot reverse the damage. Stunting itself is viewed as a coping mechanism, designed to bring body size into alignment with the calories available during adulthood in the location where the child is born. Limiting body size as a way of adapting to low levels of energy (calories) adversely affects health in three ways:

• Premature failure of vital organs occurs during adulthood. For example a 50 year old individual might die of heart failure because his/her heart suffered structural defects during early development.
• Stunted individuals suffer a far higher rate of disease and illness than those who have not undergone stunting.
• Severe malnutrition in early childhood often leads to defects in cognitive development.

"The analysis ... points to the misleading nature of the concept of subsistence as Malthus originally used it and as it is still widely used today. Subsistence in not located at the edge of a nutritional cliff, beyond which lies demographic disaster. Rather than one level of subsistence, there are numerous levels at which a population and a food supply can be in equilibrium in the sense that they can be indefinitely sustained. However, some levels will have smaller people and higher normal mortality than others."^[27]

Global water crisis

Grain storage facilities in Australia

Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries,^[28] may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India.^[29] The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China is developing a grain deficit.^[30] When this happens, it will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. After China and India, there is a second tier of smaller countries with large water deficits—Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan. Four of these already import a large share of their grain. Only Pakistan remains self-sufficient. But with a population expanding by 4 million a year, it will also likely soon turn to the world market for grain.^[31][32]

Land degradation

See also: Land degradation and Desertification

Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields.^[33] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.^[34] In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.^[35]

Land deals

Rich governments and corporations are buying up the rights to millions of hectares of agricultural land in developing countries in an effort to secure their own long-term food supplies. The head of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Jacques Diouf, has warned that the controversial rise in land deals could create a form of "neocolonialism", with poor states producing food for the rich at the expense of their own hungry people. The South Korean firm Daewoo Logistics has secured a large piece of farmland in Madagascar to grow maize and crops for biofuels. Libya has secured 250,000 hectares of Ukrainian farmland, and China has begun to explore land deals in Southeast Asia.^[36] Oil-rich Arab investors, including the sovereign wealth funds, are looking into Sudan, Ethiopia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Cambodia and Thailand.^[37]
Some countries are using the acquisition of land for agriculture in return for other gains. Egypt is seeking land acquisition in Ukraine in exchange for access to its natural gas. Qatar has plans to lease 40,000 hectares of agricultural land along Kenya's coast to grow fruit and vegetables, in return for building a £2.4 billion port close to the Indian Ocean tourist island of Lamu.^[38]

Climate change

Agriculture

See also: Climate change and agriculture

Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.^[39] India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by severe droughts in coming decades.^[40] In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.^[41][42] The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.^[43] Glaciers aren't the only worry that the developing nations have, sea level is also reported to rise as climate changes progresses, reducing the amount of land available for agriculture.^[44]
In other parts of the world a big effect will be low yields of grain according to the World Food Trade Model, specifically in the low latitude regions where much of the developing world is located. From this the price of grain will rise, along with the developing nations trying to grow the grain. Due to this, every 2-2.5% price hike will increase the number of hungry people 1%.^[45] And low crop yields is just one of the problem facing farmers in the low latitudes and tropical regions. The timing and length of the growing seasons, when farmers plant their crops, are going to be changing dramatically, per the USDA, due to unknown changes in soil temperature and moisture conditions.^[46]

Children

On 2008-04-29, a UNICEF UK report found that the world’s poorest and most vulnerable children are being hit the hardest by the impact of climate change. The report, “Our Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility: The Implications of Climate Change for the World’s Children,” says access to clean water and food supplies will become more difficult, particularly in Africa and Asia.^[47]

Wheat stem rust

Stripe Rust on a wheat stem

Watch the DIVERSEEDS short films on ways to fight wheat rust using crop wild relatives to improve resistance in modern varieties.

An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern. A virulent wheat disease could destroy most of the world’s main wheat crops, leaving millions to starve. The fungus has spread from Africa to Iran, and may already be in Pakistan.^[48][49][50]
The genetic diversity of the crop wild relatives of wheat can be used to improve modern varieties to be more resistant to rust. In their centers of origin wild wheat plants are screened for resistance to rust, then their genetic information is analysed and finally wild plants and modern varieties are crossed through means of modern plant breeding in order to transfer the resistance genes from the wild plants to the modern varieties.^[51]

Dictatorship and kleptocracy

See also: Political corruption

As the Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen has observed that "there is no such thing as an apolitical food problem." While drought and other naturally occurring events may trigger famine conditions, it is government action or inaction that determines its severity, and often even whether or not a famine will occur. The 20th century is full of examples of governments undermining the food security of their own nations–sometimes intentionally.
When governments come to power by force or rigged elections, and not by way of fair and open elections, their base of support is often narrow and built upon cronyism and patronage. Under such conditions "The distribution of food within a country is a political issue. Governments in most countries give priority to urban areas, since that is where the most influential and powerful families and enterprises are usually located. The government often neglects subsistence farmers and rural areas in general. The more remote and underdeveloped the area the less likely the government will be to effectively meet its needs. Many agrarian policies, especially the pricing of agricultural commodities, discriminate against rural areas. Governments often keep prices of basic grains at such artificially low levels that subsistence producers can not accumulate enough capital to make investments to improve their production. Thus, they are effectively prevented from getting out of their precarious situation."^[52]
Further dictators and warlords have used food as a political weapon, rewarding their supporters while denying food supplies to areas that oppose their rule. Under such conditions food becomes a currency with which to buy support and famine becomes an effective weapon to be used against the opposition.
Governments with strong tendencies towards kleptocracy can undermine food security even when harvests are good. When government monopolizes trade, farmers may find that they are free to grow cash crops for export, but under penalty of law only able to sell their crops to government buyers at prices far below the world market price. The government then is free to sell their crop on the world market at full price, pocketing the difference. This creates an artificial "poverty trap" from which even the most hard working and motivated farmers may not escape.
When the rule of law is absent, or private property is non-existent, farmers have little incentive to improve their productivity. If a farm becomes noticeably more productive than neighboring farms, it may become the target of individuals well connected to the government. Rather than risk being noticed and possibly losing their land, farmers may be content with the perceived safety of mediocrity.
As pointed out by William Bernstein in his book The Birth of Plenty: "Individuals without property are susceptible to starvation, and it is much easier to bend the fearful and hungry to the will of the state. If a [farmer's] property can be arbitrarily threatened by the state, that power will inevitably be employed to intimidate those with divergent political and religious opinions."